A History of South Africa Read online

  CHRONOLOGY

  Millennia B.C.

  Hunter-gatherers, ancestors of the Khoisan (Khoikhoi and San: “Hottentots” and “Bushmen”), living in Southern Africa

  By A.D. 300

  Mixed farmers, ancestors of the Bantu-speaking majority of the modern population, begin to settle south of the Limpopo River

  1487

  Portuguese expedition led by Bartholomeu Dias reaches Mossel Bay

  1652

  The Dutch East India Company founds a refreshment station at the Cape of Good Hope

  1652–1795

  Genesis and expansion of the Afrikaners (“Boers”); the Khoisan conquered; slaves imported from Indonesia, India, Ceylon, Madagascar (Malagasy), and Mozambique

  1795

  Britain takes the Cape Colony from the Dutch

  1803

  The Dutch (Batavian Republic) regain the Cape Colony by treaty

  1806

  Britain reconquers the Cape Colony

  1811–12

  British and colonial forces expel Africans from the territory west of the Fish River

  1815

  Rising of frontier Boers (later known as the Slagtersnek rebellion)

  1816–28

  Shaka creates the Zulu kingdom; warfare among Africans throughout much of southeastern Africa (the Mfecane)

  1820

  British settlers arrive in the Cape Colony

  1828

  The Cape colonial government repeals the pass laws

  1834–38

  Cape colonial slaves emancipated

  1834–35

  Xhosa defeated by British and colonial forces

  1835–40

  Five thousand Afrikaners (later known as voortrekkers) leave the Cape Colony with their “Coloured” clients; a movement later known as the Great Trek

  1838

  An Afrikaner commando defeats the Zulu army at the battle of Blood River

  1843

  Britain annexes Natal

  1846–47

  Xhosa defeated by British and colonial forces

  1850–53

  1852, 1854

  Britain recognizes the Transvaal and Orange Free State as independent Afrikaner republics

  1856–57

  The Xhosa cattle-killing

  1858

  Lesotho wins war versus the Orange Free State

  1865–67

  The Orange Free State defeats Lesotho

  1867

  Diamond mining begins in Griqualand West

  1868

  Britain annexes Lesotho (“Basutoland”)

  1877

  Britain annexes the Transvaal

  1879

  British and colonial forces conquer the Zulu after losing a regiment at Isandhlwana

  1880–81

  Transvaal Afrikaners regain their independence

  1886

  Gold mining begins on the Witwatersrand

  1895–96

  Leander Starr Jameson leads an unsuccessful raid into the Transvaal

  1897–98

  Rinderpest destroys vast numbers of cattle

  1898

  Transvaal commandos conquer the Venda, completing the white conquest of the African population of Southern Africa

  1899–1902

  The War between the Whites: Britain conquers the Afrikaner republics

  1904–7

  Chamber of Mines imports 63,397 Chinese workers

  1906–7

  Britain gives parliamentary government to the former republics; only Whites enfranchised

  1910

  The Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State join to form the Union of South Africa

  1912

  South African Native National Congress (NNC) founded; later becomes the African National Congress (ANC)

  1913

  Natives Land Act limits African landownership to the reserves; the beginning of a series of segregation laws

  1914–19

  As a member of the British Empire, South Africa participates in World War I

  1917

  Anglo American Corporation of South Africa founded

  1921

  Communist party of South Africa founded

  1922

  White strikers seize control of Johannesburg but are crushed by government troops

  1936

  African parliamentary voters placed on a separate roll

  1939–45

  South Africa participates in World War II on the Allied side

  1946

  70,000 to 100,000 African gold-mine workers strike for higher wages; troops drive them back to the mines

  1948

  The Afrikaner National party wins a general election and begins to apply its policy of apartheid

  1950

  The Population Registration Act classifies people by race; the Group Areas Act makes people reside in racially zoned areas

  1950 ff.

  Security legislation gives the government vast powers over people and organizations

  1952

  The ANC and its allies launch a passive resistance campaign

  1953

  The government assumes control of African education

  1955

  The Congress of the People adopts a Freedom Charter

  1956

  156 members of Congress Alliance charged with high treason

  Coloured parliamentary voters placed on a separate roll

  1958–66

  Verwoerd is prime minister

  1959

  Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) founded

  1960

  African and Coloured representation in Parliament (by Whites) terminated

  Police kill 67 African anti–pass-law demonstrators at Sharpeville; the government bans African political organizations

  1961

  South Africa becomes a republic and leaves the British Commonwealth

  1964

  Nelson Mandela and other ANC and PAC leaders sentenced to life imprisonment

  1966–68

  Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland become independent states

  1975–76

  Mozambique and Angola become independent states

  1976–77

  At least 575 people die in confrontations between Africans and police in Soweto and other African townships

  1976–81

  South Africa grants “independence” to the Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and the Ciskei Homelands, but they are not recognized abroad

  1977

  The U.N. Security Council imposes a mandatory embargo on the supply of arms to South Africa

  1978–84

  Botha is prime minister

  1979

  African trade unions can register and gain access to the industrial court and the right to strike

  1980

  Zimbabwe (previously Rhodesia) becomes independent

  1981–88

  South African forces invade Angola and make hit-and-run raids into Lesotho, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Zambia; anc guerrillas sabotage South African cities

  1983

  United Democratic Front (UDF) formed

  1984

  A new constitution gives Asians and Coloureds but not Africans limited participation in the central government; Botha becomes state president

  1984–86

  Prolonged and widespread resistance to the regime in black South African townships; violent government reactions

  1985

  First contacts between the government and imprisoned and exiled ANC leaders

  1986

  Pass laws repealed

  The government proclaims a nationwide state of emergency, detains thousands of people, and prohibits the press, radio, and television from reporting unrest

  The U.S. Congress passes the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act over President Reagan’s veto

  1986–95

  Violent conflict between Zulu supporters of Inkatha and the ANC in KwaZulu and
on the Witwatersrand

  1987

  Three-week strike by 250,000 African mine-workers

  1988

  South Africa undertakes to withdraw from Angola and cooperate in U.N.-monitored independence process in Namibia

  1989

  De Klerk succeeds Botha, first as leader of the National party, then as president

  1990

  De Klerk unbans the anc, pac, and sacp; releases Mandela and other political prisoners Namibia gains independence

  1990–91

  1913 and 1936 Land Acts, Group Areas Act, Population Registration Act, and Separate Amenities Act repealed; political organizations unbanned; state of emergency revoked; amid widespread violence, delegates from 18 parties start formal negotiations

  1992

  White voters support the negotiation process in a referendum

  The ANC breaks off negotiations with the government after an Inkatha mob massacres 46

  1993

  Negotiations resume; de Klerk, Mandela, and leaders of 18 other parties endorse an interim constitution

  1994

  Governments of the Bophuthatswana and Ciskei “Homelands” collapse

  The ANC wins first nonracial election (April 27–30)

  Nelson Mandela is sworn in as president (May 10) and forms Government of National Unity

  Foreign governments lift sanctions; South Africa rejoins the British Commonwealth

  Crime escalates

  1995

  Racial conflict in the police force (January)

  Inauguration of the Constitutional Court (February); it abolishes the death penalty (May)

  Disturbances in universities (March)

  Inkatha withdraws from the Constituent Assembly (April)

  Inauguration of the Commission for the Restitution of Land Rights (May)

  The Truth and Reconciliation Commission starts work

  1996

  The Constituent Assembly enacts a permanent constitution

  The National party withdraws from the Government, leaving the Inkatha Freedom party as well as the ANC

  1998

  Publication of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s report

  1999

  General election: the anc wins 66 percent of the vote

  The Democratic party replaces the National party as the official opposition

  Mandela retires, succeeded by Thabo Mbeki

  Strikes by government employees, including teachers

  2000

  Large-scale industrial strike

  Crisis in Zimbabwe has repercussions in South Africa

  The National party merges with the Democratic party

  13th international conference on AIDS meets in Durban

  2001

  Promotion of Access to Information Act takes effect

  Grootboom right to housing case decided by Constitutional Court

  2002

  Treatment Action Campaign case on access to anti-retroviral drugs decided by Constitutional Court

  Formation of Democratic Alliance

  African Union launched in Durban

  New Partnership for African Development created

  2003

  Patricia de Lille forms Independent Democrats

  Cabinet overrides Mbeki and announces antiretroviral drug rollout plan

  Enactment of Broad-Based Black Empowerment Act

  2004

  Mbeki elected for second term

  Law on Anti-Terrorism adopted

  Jaftha v. Schoeman right to housing case decided by Constitutional Court

  2005

  New National party disbands

  Mbeki removes Jacob Zuma as deputy president

  Zimbabwean parliamentary elections

  2006

  Zuma acquitted of rape charges

  Judicial Service Commission rejects public inquiry into activities of Cape judge John Hlophe

  U.N. Special Envoy for AIDS in Africa says South Africa promotes “lunatic fringe” attitude toward AIDS

  2007

  Scorpions indict Zuma on corruption charges

  Constitutional Court judges file charges against Judge Hlophe

  Zuma defeats Mbeki for ANC presidency at ANC conference in Polokwane

  2008

  Power-sharing agreement in Zimbabwe

  Corruption charges against Zuma dropped

  Mbeki resigns

  Kgalema Motlanthe inaugurated

  Barbara Hogan becomes minister of health

  Congress of the People (COPE) founded

  2009

  Zuma elected president

  Zuma appoints Sandile Ngcobo as chief justice

  Zuma gives World AIDS Day speech announcing policy to distribute antiretroviral drugs widely

  2010

  Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development report labels South Africa one of the world’s most unequal societies

  Government acknowledges that Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment Program has been largely a failure

  South Africa does not issue visa to Dalai Lama to attend Desmond Tutu’s eightieth birthday party

  2011

  Activist Andries Tatane killed by police during service delivery protest

  South African Human Rights Commission investigates complaints about water quality and supply

  2012

  ANC centenary celebrations

  Marikana Massacre

  Moody’s downgrades South Africa

  ANC conference at Mangaung, Zuma reelected ANC president

  2013

  Mamphela Ramphele forms Agang SA

  South African troops killed in Central African Republic Passage of Secrecy Bill

  Julius Malema forms Economic Freedom Fighters

  2014

  Twentieth anniversary of end of white rule

  CHAPTER 1

  The Africans

  The Significance and Problems of Precolonial History

  Modern Western culture is inordinately present-minded. Politicians are ignorant of the past. School curricula foreshorten the historical record by focusing on recent events. People lack a sense of their location in time and fail to perceive that contemporary society is constrained by its cultural as well as its biological inheritance.

  Many historians of the white South African establishment start their history books with a brief reference to the voyage of Vasco da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope in 1497-98 and then rush on to the arrival of the first white settlers in 1652.. Other historians are so committed to emphasizing the role of capitalism as the molder of modern Southern Africa that they ignore the processes that shaped society before Europeans began to intrude in the region.

  The precolonial history of Southern Africa is significant in its own right, providing examples of the constraints and possibilities, achievements and setbacks of preindustrial and preliterate communities as they established their niches in a variety of environments. It is also significant as providing essential links in explaining what has followed. Indigenous Southern Africans were not a tabula rasa for white invaders or capitalists to civilize or to victimize. Over many centuries, they had been developing social forms and cultural traditions that colonialism, capitalism, and apartheid have assaulted, abused, and modified but never eradicated. One cannot understand how Africans have endured the fragmentation of their family life by migrant labor unless one has knowledge of their customary social values and networks. Nor can one fathom the vigor of black resistance to the apartheid state without knowledge of precolonial African ideas about the social and economic obligations of rulers and rights of subjects, and the basis of political legitimacy.